Table 1.

right brain regions – medial PFC, DLPFC and ventrolateral PFC

Age†	Cohort‡	Category	Results/outcomes	Exposure details	Ref.
*Fetus*
17–22 GW	–	Growth	Reduced foot length and bodyweight	≥0.4 J/day	[48]
18–22 GW	–	Dopamine signaling	Decreased D2 mRNA in amygdala of males only	≥0.4 J/day	[152]
18–22 GW	–	Endorphin signaling	Decreased opioid peptide (PENK) and receptor (κ) in caudal putamen and thalamus, respectively; increased opioid receptor (µ) in the amygdala	–	[74]
*Neonatal*
Neonatal	OPPS	Neurobehavior	Increased tremors, exaggerated startles and diminished responsiveness to light	–	[46]
Neonatal	MHPCD	Growth	Decreased body length	≥1 J/day, first Trim	[49]
Neonatal	–	Growth Neurobehavior	No effect on birthweight, length or gestational age No effect	– –	[54]
Neonatal	VIPS	Growth	No effect on birthweight, preterm delivery or abruptio placentae	–	[35]
Neonatal	–	Growth Behavior	No effect on birthweight, length or gestational age More irritable, less responsive to calming, increased jitters and startles	– –	[52]
Neonatal	NBDPS	Growth	No effect on birthweight, gestational age or preterm delivery	–	[40]
1 mo	–	Behavior	Less irritable, more alert, more robust autonomic and motor systems, more autonomically stable and increased orientation	≥2.86 J/day	[54]
*Toddler*
8 mo	MHPCD	Growth	No effect	–	[49]
9 mo	MHPCD	Mental/motor skills	Delayed mental development	≥1 J/day, third Trim	[26]
1 y	OPPS	Mental/motor skills	No effect	–	[55]
1 y	–	Mental/motor skills	Decreased motor scores, no effect on mental development	≥0.5 J/day, first Trim	[149]
19 mo	MHPCD	Mental/motor skills	No effect	–	[26]
2 y	OPPS	Mental/motor skills	No effect	–	[55]
3 y	MHPCD	Intelligence Cognition	No effect on overall IQ for entire cohort For African–Americans: decrease in short-term memory and verbal reasoning	– ≥1 J/day, first/second Trim	[57]
3 y	MHPCD	Sleep and arousal	Lowered sleep efficiency, more nocturnal arousals and more awake time after sleep onset	–	[153]
*Childhood*
4 y	–	Sustained attention	Increased number of omission errors	First Trim	[45]
4 y	MHPCD	Motor skills	No effect on balance and coordination skills	–	[154]
5–6 y	OPPS	Cognition and language	No effect	–	[155]
6 y	MHPCD	Growth	No effect	–	[156]
6 y	OPPS	Memory Attention Behavior	No effect Increased number of omission errors Described as more impulsive and hyperactive	≥0.86 J/day	[58]
6 y	MHPCD	Impulsivity Sustained attention	Decrease in errors of omission Lower overall composite score	Second Trim	[60]
6 y	MHPCD	Intelligence Cognition	Lower overall composite score Lower verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning and short-term memory	≥1 J/day, first/second Trim	[59]
9–12 y	OPPS	Reading and language	No effect in regards to reading or language	–	[68]
9–12 y	OPPS	Intelligence Executive function	No effect in terms of full scale IQ Impulse control and visual hypothesis aspects are negatively impacted	– > 0.86 J/day	[63]
*Adolescence*
10 y	MHPCD	Behavior and emotion Behavior and emotion	Fewer internalizing problems, although not correlated with teacher’s report Predicted lower scores in design memory and screening index	≥0.4 J/day second Trim ≥0.89 J/day, first Trim	[47]
10 y	MHPCD	Learning and memory Sustained attention	Predicted lower scores in design memory and screening index Increase in errors of commission	≥0.89 J/day, first Trim ≥0.89 J/day, second Trim	[47]
10 y	MHPCD	Depression	Increased levels of depressive symptoms	>0.89 J/day, first/third Trim	[64]
12 y	–	Psychotic symptoms	No effect	–	[66]
10–14 y	–	Volumetric MRI	No effect on cortical gray matter volume, white matter volume, cerebral spinal fluid or parenchymal volume	–	[69]
10 y 14 y	MHPCD	Behavior and cognition Delinquent behaviors	Negatively associated with depressive symptoms, IQ, learning and memory Increased delinquent behaviors	≥0.89 J/day, first/second Trim ≥0.89 J/day	[61]
13–16 y	OPPS	Sustained attention	Decreased stability of attention over time	≥0.86 J/day	[71]
13–16 y	OPPS	Growth	No changes in weight, height or puberty symptoms	–	[157]
13–16 y	OPPS	Visual memory	Lower scores in abstract designs and Peabody spelling	≥0.86 J/day	[27]
16 y	MHPCD	Fine motor coordination Visual–motor coordination	Various light deficits in processing speed and interhemispheric motor coordination Slight increase in visual–motor coordination	≥2 J/mo	[158]
*Young adult*
18–22 y	OPPS	Response inhibition Response inhibition by fMRI Intelligence Working memory by fMRI	Slightly more errors of commission Increased bilateral PFC activity, right premotor cortex activity; decreased activity in left cerebellum No effect Increased activity in left medial PFC, inferior frontal gyrus and left cerebellum; decreased activity in	– – – –	[72] [73]

Prenatal Marijuana Exposure Studies in Humans

†Exposed offspring study age.
‡Specified conditions of prenatal exposure.
DLPFC: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; GW: Gestation week(s); J: Joint; MHPCD: Maternal Health Practices and Child Development Project; mo: Month(s); NBDPS: National Birth Defects Prevention Study; OPPS: Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study; PENK: Proenkephalin; PFC: Prefrontal cortex; Trim: Trimester; VIPS: Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study; y: Year(s).

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•• Along with [74], it is one of only two human studies to date that describe changes in neurotransmitter signaling by as early as midgestation in response to PME.
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Websites
201. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2010). Results from the 2009 National Survey on Drug Use and Health Mental Health Findings (Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, NSDUH Series H-39, HHS Publication No.SMA 10-4609) www.oas.samhsa.gov/NSDUH/2k9NSDUH/MH/2k9MHResults.htm
202. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: Substance Use among Women During Pregnancy and Following Childbirth. The NSDUH Report (2009) http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k9/135/PregWoSubUse.htm
203. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), World Drug Report 2010 (United Nations Publication, Sales No. E. 10.XI.13) www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/World_Drug_Report_2010_lo-res.pdf

Papers of special note have been highlighted as:
• of interest
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Author(s)

Chia-Shan Wu, PhD

The Cain Foundation Laboratories, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital

Disclosures

Disclosure: Chia-Shan Wu, PhD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Christopher P. Jew

The Cain Foundation Laboratories, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital; Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas

Disclosures

Disclosure: Christopher P. Jew has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Hui-Chen Lu, PhD

The Cain Foundation Laboratories, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital; Department of Pediatrics; Program in Developmental Biology; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas

Disclosures

Disclosure: Hui-Chen Lu, PhD, is supported by NIH grants: NS048884 (NINDS), DA029381 (NIDA) and HD065561 (NICHD).

Editor(s)

Elisa Manzotti

Editorial Director, Future Science Group, London, United Kingdom

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Disclosure: Elisa Manzotti has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

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Laurie Barclay, MD

Freelance writer and reviewer, Medscape, LLC

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Disclosure: Laurie Barclay, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

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Nafeez Zawahir, MD

CME Clinical Director, Medscape, LLC

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Disclosure: Nafeez Zawahir, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Sarah Fleischman

CME Program Manager, Medscape, LLC

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Disclosure: Sarah Fleischman has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

CME

Lasting Impacts of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and the Role of Endogenous Cannabinoids in the Developing Brain

Authors: Chia-Shan Wu, PhD; Christopher P. Jew; Hui-Chen Lu, PhD
CME Released: 7/1/2011
THIS ACTIVITY HAS EXPIRED
Valid for credit through: 7/1/2012

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Target Audience and Goal Statement

This activity is intended for primary care clinicians, obstetricians, neurologists, psychiatrists, pediatricians, and other healthcare providers advising pregnant women regarding the effects of prenatal marijuana exposure and/or caring for their offspring.

The goal of this activity is to review the interaction of prenatal exposure to marijuana with endocannabinoid effects on neural development.

Upon completion of this activity, participants will be able to:

Describe the epidemiology of prenatal exposure to marijuana, based on a review
Describe the neurodevelopmental effects of prenatal exposure to marijuana
Describe the effects of endocannabinoids on neural development and how prenatal exposure to marijuana influences these effects

Disclosures

Author(s)

Chia-Shan Wu, PhD

The Cain Foundation Laboratories, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital

Disclosures

Disclosure: Chia-Shan Wu, PhD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Christopher P. Jew

The Cain Foundation Laboratories, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital; Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas

Disclosures

Disclosure: Christopher P. Jew has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Hui-Chen Lu, PhD

The Cain Foundation Laboratories, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital; Department of Pediatrics; Program in Developmental Biology; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas

Disclosures

Disclosure: Hui-Chen Lu, PhD, is supported by NIH grants: NS048884 (NINDS), DA029381 (NIDA) and HD065561 (NICHD).

Editor(s)

Elisa Manzotti

Editorial Director, Future Science Group, London, United Kingdom

Disclosures

Disclosure: Elisa Manzotti has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

CME Author(s)

Laurie Barclay, MD

Freelance writer and reviewer, Medscape, LLC

Disclosures

Disclosure: Laurie Barclay, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

CME Reviewer(s)

Nafeez Zawahir, MD

CME Clinical Director, Medscape, LLC

Disclosures

Disclosure: Nafeez Zawahir, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Sarah Fleischman

CME Program Manager, Medscape, LLC

Disclosures

Disclosure: Sarah Fleischman has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

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Conclusion

Marijuana abuse during pregnancy and adolescence represents a major health problem owing to its potential consequences on neural development. Prenatally cannabis-exposed children display cognitive deficits, suggesting that maternal consumption has interfered with the proper maturation of the brain. Several pharmacological effects of THC, the active principle of Cannabis sativa preparations such as hashish and marijuana, are mimicked by the endogenous eCBs, 2-AG and AEA. On the other hand, pharmacological inhibition or genetic deletion of either FAAH or MAGL to elevate endogenous levels of AEA and 2-AG, respectively, does not reproduce the full spectrum of responses observed with THC. Interestingly, a recently developed dual FAAH/MAGL inhibitor (JZL195) induced THC-like drug discrimination responses, which were not observed with disruption of either FAAH or MAGL alone.^[149] The observation that the THC-like additive effects of dual FAAH/MAGL blockade can be reversed by CB₁R antagonists suggests that most, if not all, acute cognitive responses to THC are mediated through the CB₁R.^[150] Whether THC produces effect by partially activating CB₁R or antagonizing the action of 2-AG and AEA at this receptor remains an open question.^[151]

2-AG is the most abundant eCB in the brain. Basal 2-AG levels in the adult brain are approximately 200 times those of AEA,^[83] while an approximately 1000-fold excess of tissue 2-AG concentrations over those of AEA exists in the fetal brain.^[102] The relative contribution of the two arms of eCB signaling in regulating neurogenesis, axonal growth and guidance, and synaptogenesis during development is not well understood. The data from dual blockade of FAAH/MAGL indicate that AEA and 2-AG signaling pathways interact to regulate specific behavioral processes in vivo, including those relevant to drug abuse.^[150] Hence, future studies employing novel pharmacological and genetic tools may help to dissect out specific eCB signaling pathways in regulating neural developmental processes.

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Page 5 of 7

Future Perspective

CME Information

References

Table 1.

CME

Lasting Impacts of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and the Role of Endogenous Cannabinoids in the Developing Brain

Target Audience and Goal Statement

Disclosures

Author(s)

Chia-Shan Wu, PhD

Christopher P. Jew

Hui-Chen Lu, PhD

Editor(s)

Elisa Manzotti

CME Author(s)

Laurie Barclay, MD

CME Reviewer(s)

Nafeez Zawahir, MD

Sarah Fleischman

Accreditation Statements

For Physicians

Instructions for Participation and Credit

Lasting Impacts of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and the Role of Endogenous Cannabinoids in the Developing Brain: Conclusion

Conclusion

Table of Contents

Table 1.

References

Faculty and Disclosures

Author(s)

Chia-Shan Wu, PhD

Christopher P. Jew

Hui-Chen Lu, PhD

Editor(s)

Elisa Manzotti

CME Author(s)

Laurie Barclay, MD

CME Reviewer(s)

Nafeez Zawahir, MD

Sarah Fleischman

CME

Lasting Impacts of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and the Role of Endogenous Cannabinoids in the Developing Brain

Target Audience and Goal Statement

Disclosures

Author(s)

Chia-Shan Wu, PhD

Christopher P. Jew

Hui-Chen Lu, PhD

Editor(s)

Elisa Manzotti

CME Author(s)

Laurie Barclay, MD

CME Reviewer(s)

Nafeez Zawahir, MD

Sarah Fleischman

Accreditation Statements

For Physicians

Instructions for Participation and Credit

Lasting Impacts of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and the Role of Endogenous Cannabinoids in the Developing Brain: Conclusion

Conclusion

Table of Contents